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Fractional-reserve banking

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Fractional-reserve banking is the banking practice in which banks keep only a fraction of their deposits in reserve (as cash and other highly liquid assets) and lend out the remainder, while maintaining the simultaneous obligation to redeem all deposits immediately upon demand. This practice is universal in modern banking.^[1][2]

[edit] History

This section may require cleanup to meet Wikipedia's quality standards. Please improve this section if you can. (October 2008)

Prior to the 1800s, savers looking to keep their valuables in safekeeping depositories deposited gold coins and silver coins at goldsmiths, receiving in turn a note for their deposit (see Bank of Amsterdam). Once these notes became a trusted medium of exchange an early form of paper money was born, in the form of the goldsmiths' notes.^[3]

As the notes were used directly in trade, the goldsmiths observed that people would not usually redeem all their notes at the same time, and saw the opportunity to invest coin reserves in interest-bearing loans and bills. This left the goldsmiths with more notes on issue than reserves to pay them with. This generated income—a process that altered their role from passive guardians of bullion charging fees for safe storage, to interest-paying and earning banks. Fractional-reserve banking was born.

However, if creditors (note holders of gold originally deposited) lost faith in the ability of a bank to redeem (pay) their notes, many would try to redeem their notes at the same time. If in response a bank could not raise enough funds by calling in loans or selling bills, it either went into insolvency or defaulted on its notes. Such a situation is called a bank run and caused the demise of many early banks.^[3]

[edit] Benefits of fractional reserve banking

According to the United States' Federal Reserve, fractional reserve banking provides benefits to the economy and the banking system:

The fact that banks are required to keep on hand only a fraction of the funds deposited with them is a function of the banking business. Banks borrow funds from their depositors (those with savings) and in turn lend those funds to the banks’ borrowers (those in need of funds). Banks make money by charging borrowers more for a loan (a higher percentage interest rate) than is paid to depositors for use of their money. If banks did not lend out their available funds after meeting their reserve requirements, depositors might have to pay banks to provide safekeeping services for their money. For the economy and the banking system as a whole, the practice of keeping only a fraction of deposits on hand has an important cumulative effect. Referred to as the fractional reserve system, it permits the banking system to "create" money.^[4]

[edit] How it works

A demand deposit at a bank (e.g. a chequeing or savings account) or banknote issued by a bank (bank-issued paper money) is essentially a loan to the bank, repayable on demand, which the bank uses to finance its investments in loans and interest bearing securities. The nature of fractional-reserve banking is that there is only a fraction of cash reserves available at the bank needed to repay all of the demand deposits and banknotes issued. The reason people deposit funds at a bank or hold banknotes issued by a bank is to store savings in the form of a demand claim on the bank. One important aspect of fractional-reserve banking is that the note holders and depositors still have a claim to repayment of their funds on demand even though the funds are already largely invested by the bank in interest bearing loans and securities.^[5]

For instance, you could ask to withdraw all the money in your checking account at any time. If all the depositors of a bank did that at the same time (a bank run), the bank could be in trouble. This is a rare event today, but there are some recent examples. The Northern Rock crisis of 2007 in the United Kingdom is an example of such an event, as was the collapse of Indymac bank in the United States. The collapse of Washington Mutual bank in September 2008, the largest bank failure in history, was an example of a "silent run" on the bank, where depositors removed vast sums of money from the bank through electronic transfer^{[citation needed]}.

However, in the absence of rare events triggering bank runs, fractional-reserve banking usually works because at any one time relatively few "at call" depositors will make cash withdrawals simultaneously compared to the total amount on deposit, and a cash reserve can be maintained as a "buffer" to deal with the normal cash demands from depositors seeking withdrawals. In addition, in a normal economic environment where net lending is positive and cash is being injected into the banking system by the central bank, new cash deposits are steadily being created.

If the net redemption demands are unusually large at any one time, the bank will run low on cash reserves and will be forced to raise new funds from additional borrowings (e.g. by borrowing from the money market or using lines of credit held with other banks), and/or sell assets, and/or call in short-term loans to avoid running out of reserves and defaulting on its obligations. If creditors are afraid that the bank is running out of cash or is insolvent, they have an incentive to redeem their deposits as soon as possible before other depositors access the remaining cash reserves before they do, triggering a cascading crisis that can result in a full-scale bank run.

[edit] Money creation

The process of fractional-reserve banking has a cumulative effect of money creation by banks.^[4] In short, there are two types of money in a fractional-reserve banking system:^[6][7][8]

1. central bank money (money created by the central bank regardless of its form (banknotes, coins and electronic money loaned to commercial banks))
2. commercial bank money (money created through loans in the banking system) - sometimes referred to as chequebook money^[9]

When a loan is funded with central bank money, new commercial bank money is created. As a loan is paid back, the commercial bank money disappears from existence.

The table below displays how loans are funded and how the money supply is affected. It also shows how central bank money is used to create commercial bank money. An initial deposit of $100 of central bank money is lent out 10 times with a fractional-reserve rate of 20%. This means that of the initial $100, 20 percent of it, or $20, is set aside as reserves while the remaining 80 percent, or $80, is loaned out. The recipient of the $80 then spends that money. The receiver of that $80 then deposits it into a bank. The bank then sets aside 20 percent of that $80, or $16, as reserves and lends out the remaining $64. As the process continues, more commercial bank money is created. To simplify the table, a different bank is used for each deposit. In the real world, the money a bank lends may end up in the same bank so it then has more money to lend out.

The expansion of $100 of central bank money through fractional-reserve lending with a 20% reserve rate. $400 of commercial bank money is created virtually through loans.

Although no new money was physically created in addition to the initial $100 deposit, new commercial bank money is created through loans. The 2 boxes marked in red show the location of the original $100 deposit throughout the entire process. The total reserves plus the last deposit (or last loan, whichever is last) will always equal the original amount, which in this case is $100. As this process continues, more commercial bank money is created. The amounts in each step decrease towards a limit. If a graph is made showing the accumulation of deposits, one can see that the graph is curved and approaches a limit. This limit is the maximum amount of money that can be created with a given reserve rate. When the reserve rate is 20%, as in the example above, the maximum amount of total deposits that can be created is $500 and the maximum amount of commercial bank money that can be created is $400.

For an individual bank, the deposit is considered a liability whereas the loan it gives out and the reserves are considered assets. The deposit will always be equal to the loan plus the reserve, since the loan and reserve are created from the deposit. This is the basis for a bank's balance sheet.

The creation and destruction of commercial bank money occurs through this process. Whether it is created or destroyed depends on what direction the process moves. When loans are given out, the process moves from the top down and money is created. When loans are paid back, the process moves from the bottom to the top and commercial bank money is canceled out, effectively erasing it from existence.

This table gives an outline of the makeup of money supplies worldwide. Most of the money in any given money supply consists of commercial bank money.^[6] The value of commercial bank money comes from the fact that it can be exchanged at a bank for central bank money.^[6][7]

This is a general outline of how it works. The actual increase in the money supply through this process may be lower, as (at each step) banks may choose to hold reserves in excess of the statutory minimum, borrowers may let some funds sit idle, and some borrowers may choose to hold cash, and there may be delays or frictions in the process.^[13] It may also be higher if the reserve requirement is lower or if there are no reserve requirements^[14]. Government regulations may also be used to limit the money creation process by preventing banks from giving out loans even though the reserve requirements have been fulfilled.^[15]

[edit] Money multiplier

The expansion of $100 through fractional-reserve banking with varying reserve requirements. Each curve approaches a limit. This limit is the value that the money multiplier calculates.

The most common mechanism used to measure this increase in the money supply is typically called the money multiplier. It calculates the maximum amount of money that an initial deposit can be expanded to with a given reserve ratio.

[edit] Formula

The money multiplier, m, is the inverse of the reserve requirement, R:^[16]

Example

For example, with the reserve ratio of 20 percent, this reserve ratio, R, can also be expressed as a fraction:

So then the money multiplier, m, will be calculated as:

This number is multiplied by the initial deposit to show the maximum amount of money it can be expanded to.

[edit] Reserve requirements

The reserve requirements are intended to prevent banks from:

1. generating too much money by making too many loans against the narrow money deposit base;
2. having a shortage of cash when large deposits are withdrawn (although the reserve is a legal minimum, it is understood that in a crisis or bank run, reserves may be made available on a temporary basis).

The money creation process is affected by the currency drain ratio (the propensity of the public to hold banknotes rather than deposit them with a commercial bank), and the safety reserve ratio (excess reserves beyond the legal requirement that commercial banks voluntarily hold—usually a small amount). Data for "excess" reserves and vault cash are published regularly by the Federal Reserve in the United States.^[17] In practice, the actual money multiplier varies over time, and may be substantially lower than the theoretical maximum.^[18]

[edit] Financial ratios

In addition to reserve requirements, there are other financial ratios that affect how many loans a bank can fund. The capital ratio is one type of ratio. At zero-reserve banking this is the way to prevent infinite lending.

[edit] Money supplies around the world

Main articles: Money supply and Inflation

Fractional-reserve banking determines the relationship between the amount of central bank money (currency) in the official money supply statistics and the total money supply. Most of the money in these systems is commercial bank money . Fractional reserve banking involves the issuance and creation of commercial bank money, which increases the money supply through the deposit creation multiplier. The issue of money through the banking system is a mechanism of monetary transmission, which a central bank can influence indirectly by raising or lowering interest rates (although banking regulations may also be adjusted to influence the money supply, depending on the circumstances).

Components of US money supply (currency, M1, M2, and M3) since 1959. In January 2007, the amount of central bank money was $750.5 billion while the amount of commercial bank money (in the M2 supply) was $6.33 trillion. M1 is currency plus demand deposits; M2 is M1 plus time deposits, savings deposits, and some money-market funds; and M3 is M2 plus large time deposits and other forms of money.^{[clarification needed]}

Components of the euro money supply 1998-2007

[edit] Regulation

Because the nature of fractional-reserve banking involves the possibility of bank runs, central banks have been created throughout the world to address these problems.^[19][20]

[edit] Central banks

Main article: Central bank

Government controls and bank regulations related to fractional-reserve banking have generally been used to impose restrictive requirements on note issue and deposit taking on the one hand, and to provide relief from bankruptcy and creditor claims, and/or protect creditors with government funds, when banks defaulted on the other hand. Such measures have included:

1. Minimum required reserve ratios (RRRs)
2. Minimum capital ratios
3. Government bond deposit requirements for note issue
4. 100% Marginal Reserve requirements for note issue, such as the Bank Charter Act 1844 (UK)
5. Sanction on bank defaults and protection from creditors for many months or even years, and
6. Central bank support for distressed banks, and government guarantee funds for notes and deposits, both to counteract bank runs and to protect bank creditors.

[edit] Liquidity and capital management for a bank

Main articles: Capital requirement and Market liquidity

To avoid defaulting on its obligations, the bank must maintain a minimal reserve ratio that it fixes in accordance with, notably, regulations and its liabilities. In practice this means that the bank sets a reserve ratio target and responds when the actual ratio falls below the target. Such response can be, for instance:

1. Selling or redeeming other assets, or securitization of illiquid assets,
2. Restricting investment in new loans,
3. Borrowing funds (whether repayable on demand or at a fixed maturity),
4. Issuing additional capital instruments, or
5. Reducing dividends.

Because different funding options have different costs, and differ in reliability, banks maintain a stock of low cost and reliable sources of liquidity such as:

1. Demand deposits with other banks
2. High quality marketable debt securities
3. Committed lines of credit with other banks

As with reserves, other sources of liquidity are managed with targets.

The ability of the bank to borrow money reliably and economically is crucial, which is why confidence in the bank's creditworthiness is important to its liquidity. This means that the bank needs to maintain adequate capitalisation and to effectively control its exposures to risk in order to continue its operations. If creditors doubt the bank's assets are worth more than its liabilities, all demand creditors have an incentive to demand payment immediately, a situation known as a run on the bank.

Contemporary bank management methods for liquidity are based on maturity analysis of all the bank's assets and liabilities (off balance sheet exposures may also be included). Assets and liabilities are put into residual contractual maturity buckets such as 'on demand', 'less than 1 month', '2-3 months' etc. These residual contractual maturities may be adjusted to account for expected counter party behaviour such as early loan repayments due to borrowers refinancing and expected renewals of term deposits to give forecast cash flows. This analysis highlights any large future net outflows of cash and enables the bank to respond before they occur. Scenario analysis may also be conducted, depicting scenarios including stress scenarios such as a bank-specific crisis.

[edit] Risk and prudential regulation

In a fractional-reserve banking system, in the event of a bank run, the demand depositors and note holders would attempt to withdraw more money than the bank has in reserves, causing the bank to suffer a liquidity crisis and, ultimately, to perhaps default. In the event of a default, the bank would need to liquidate assets and the creditors of the bank would suffer a loss if the proceeds were insufficient to pay its liabilities. Since public deposits are payable on demand, liquidation may require selling assets quickly and potentially in large enough quantities to affect the price of those assets. An otherwise solvent bank (whose assets are worth more than its liabilities) may be made insolvent by a bank run. This problem potentially exists for any corporation with debt or liabilities, but is more critical for banks as they rely upon public deposits (which may be redeemable upon demand).

Although an initial analysis of a bank run and default points to the bank's inability to liquidate or sell assets (i.e. because the fraction of assets not held in the form of liquid reserves are held in less liquid investments such as loans), a more full analysis indicates that depositors will cause a bank run only when they have a genuine fear of loss of capital, and that banks with a strong risk adjusted capital ratio should be able to liquidate assets and obtain other sources of finance to avoid default. For this reason, fractional-reserve banks have every reason to maintain their liquidity, even at the cost of selling assets at heavy discounts and obtaining finance at high cost, during a bank run (to avoid a total loss for the contributors of the bank's capital, the shareholders).

Many governments have enforced or established deposit insurance systems in order to protect depositors from the event of bank defaults and to help maintain public confidence in the fractional-reserve system.

Responses to the problem of financial risk described above include:

1. Proponents of prudential regulation, such as minimum capital ratios, minimum reserve ratios, central bank or other regulatory supervision, and compulsory note and deposit insurance, (see Controls on Fractional-Reserve Banking below);
2. Proponents of free banking, who believe that banking should be open to free entry and competition, and that the self-interest of debtors, creditors and shareholders should result in effective risk management; and,
3. Withdrawal restrictions: some bank accounts may place a limit on daily cash withdrawals and may require a notice period for very large withdrawals. Banking laws in some countries may allow restrictions to be placed on withdrawals under certain circumstances, although these restrictions may rarely, if ever, be used;
4. Opponents of fractional reserve banking who insist that notes and demand deposits be 100% reserved.

[edit] Example of a bank balance sheet and financial ratios

An example of fractional reserve banking, and the calculation of the reserve ratio is shown in the balance sheet below:

In this example the (legal tender) cash held by the bank is $201m and the demand liabilities of the bank are $25482m, for a (legal tender) cash reserve ratio of 0.79%.

[edit] Other financial ratios

The key financial ratio used to analyse fractional-reserve banks is the cash reserve ratio, which is the ratio of cash reserves to demand deposits and notes. However, other important financial ratios are also used to analyse the bank's liquidity, financial strength, profitability etc.

For example the ANZ National Bank Limited balance sheet above gives the following financial ratios:

1. The (legal tender) cash reserve ratio is $201m/$25482m, i.e. 0.79%.
2. The central bank notes/balances reserve ratio is $3010m/$25482m, i.e. 11.81%.
3. The liquid assets reserve ratio is ($201m+$2809m+$1797m)/$25482m, i.e. 18.86%.
4. The equity capital ratio is $8703m/107787m, i.e. 8.07%.
5. The tangible equity ratio is ($8703m-$3297m)/107787m, i.e. 5.02%
6. The total capital ratio is ($8703m+$2062m)/$107787m, i.e. 9.99%.

Clearly, then, it is very important how the term 'reserves' is defined for calculating the reserve ratio, and different definitions give different results. Other important financial ratios may require analysis of disclosures in other parts of the bank's financial statements. In particular, for liquidity risk, disclosures are incorporated into a note to the financial statements that provides maturity analysis of the bank's assets and liabilities and an explanation of how the bank manages its liquidity.

[edit] How the example bank manages its liquidity

See also: Duration gap

The ANZ National Bank Limited explains its methods as:^{[citation needed]}

[edit] Criticism

Main article: Criticism of fractional-reserve banking

The primary criticisms relate to the potential fragility of bank liquidity in a fractional reserve banking environment, the financial risk of bank runs that depositors bear when depositing money with banks, and the impact that demand deposits have on the stock of money, and on inflation (that is, the implicit debasement of the currency and its associated impact on the exchange rate). An alternative to fractional reserve banking is making the practice illegal and classifying the practice as a form of embezzlement, only permitting full-reserve banking.^[21] With full-reserve banking, some monetary reformers as such as Stephen Zarlenga of the American Monetary Institute, support the concurrent issuance of debt-free fiat currency from the Treasury, while others such as Congressman Ron Paul and the Ludwig von Mises Institute call for a commodity currency such as was possible under the Gold Standard.^[22][23][24]

[edit] Exacerbation of the business cycle

Main article: Austrian Business Cycle Theory

Austrian School economists claim that fractional-reserve banking, by expanding the money supply, will lower the interest rates compared to a full-reserve banking system. They argue that this will affect the role of the interest rate as the price of investment capital, guiding investment decisions. In their view, the natural (free of government influence) interest rate reflects the actual time preference of lenders and borrowers. Government's monopolistic control of the money supply through central banks and regulations insuring fractional-reserve banking activities disturbs this equilibrium such that the interest rate no longer reflects the real supply of and demand for investment capital. Austrian School economists conclude that, if the interest rate is artificially low, then the demand for loans will be higher than the actual supply of willing lenders, and if the interest rate is artificially high, the opposite situation will occur. This misinformation leads investors to misallocate capital, borrowing and investing either too much or too little in long-term projects. Periodic recessions, then, are seen as necessary "corrections" following periods of fiat credit expansion, when unprofitable investments stimulated by fiat credit creation are liquidated, freeing capital for new sustainable investment. One of the proponents of aspects of the business cycle theory, Friedrich von Hayek, was awarded the Nobel Prize in Economics,^[25] but the theory is not generally accepted as an adequate refutation of Keynesian economic theory.^[26] A few Austrian School economists, such as Pascal Salin, also suggest that a full-reserve banking system should not be enforced legally and dispute Murray Rothbard's characterization of fractional-reserve banking as a simple form of recursive embezzlement, and rather advocate the abolition of central banking and suggest that free banking replace the current system.

[edit] Effects of an increased money supply

Fractional reserve banking involves the issuance and creation of commercial bank money, which increases the money supply on an exponential basis. According to the quantity theory of money, this increase in the money supply leads to more money "chasing" the same amount of goods, which leads to inflation.^[27] Some monetarists and Austrian economists believe that the exchange rate or purchasing power of the monetary unit is governed by the quantity of money, including demand deposits and notes, and therefore view fractional reserve banking as the main cause of inflation.^[28]

Some quantity theorists who criticize fractional reserve banking support minimum reserve ratios or other government controls on the quantity of money created by commercial banks. Some support a gold standard or silver standard to restrain "unfettered", "speculative" fractional-reserve banking activities.^[29][30][31] Fractional reserve currency has also been characterized as a hybrid of receipt currency and fiat currency that which eventually become fiat currency.

[edit] See also

• Bimetallism
• Bretton Woods system
• Credit money
• Digital gold currency
• Fiat currency
• Free banking
• Full-reserve banking
• Gold standard
• Islamic banking
• Money supply
• Money creation
• Monetary reform
• Seignorage
• Usury
• List of economics topics
• List of finance topics
• List of business ethics, political economy, and philosophy of business topics

[edit] Further reading

• Huerta de Soto, J. (2006), Money, Bank Credit and Economic Cycles, Ludwig von Mises Institute
• Meigs, A.J. (1962), Free reserves and the money supply, Chicago, University of Chicago, 1962.
• Crick, W.F. (1927), The genesis of bank deposits, Economica, vol 7, 1927, pp 191-202.
• Philips, C.A. (1921), Bank Credit, New York, Macmillan, chapters 1-4, 1921,
• Thomson, P. (1956), Variations on a theme by Philips, American Economic Review vol 46, December 1956, pp. 965-970.
• Parliament of Tasmania, Monetary System, Report of Select Committee, With Minutes of Proceedings, 1935.

[edit] References

[edit] External links

• Rothbard, M. N. (1983) The Mystery of Banking, Richardson & Snyder, 1983, pp 87-110
• Narrow banking
• Seignorage and inflation tax
• Schematic diagram to explain the fractional-reserve process
• Fractional reserve banking and usury
• Free banking and fractional reserves: a comment (Pascal Salin)
• Simple Fractional Reserve Banking Model

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